It has been reported that entomopathogenic nematodes can be used as biological control agent to manage species of the American (Periplaneta americana) and the German (Blattella germanica) cockroaches. Read following paper for more information
Maketon, M., Hominchan, A. and Hotaka, D. 2010. Control of American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and German cockroach (Blattella germanica) by entomopathogenic nematodes. Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 36: 249-253.
It has been demonstrated that the Entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema feltiae have a potential to use as effective biological control agent against diapausing cocooned codling moth, Cydia pomonella larvae in miniature fruit bins. Read following paper for more information on efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against codling moth
Lacey, L.A., Neven, L.G., Headrick, H.L., Fritts, R. 2005. Factors affecting entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinerneniatidae) for control of overwintering codling moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae) in fruit bins. Journal of Economic Entomology 98: 1863-1869.
Recently, Negrisoli et al. (2010) demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema glaseri were found to be compatible with many insecticides including chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, lufenuron, deltramethrin + triazophos, diflubenzuron, gamacyhalothrin, lambdacyhalothrin, spinosad, cypermethrin, triflumuron, and permethrin under laboratory conditions. Read following paper for more information compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with insecticides.
Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B. 2010. Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with registered insecticides for Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions. Crop Protection 29: 545-549.
Recently, Andalo, et al. (2010) demonstrated that the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema arenarium and Heterorhabditis sp. can kill over 80% larvae of fall army worm, Spodoptera frugiperda under both laboratory and greenhouse condition. Read following paper for the information on the effect of entomopathogenic nematodes on fall army worm.
Andalo, V., Santos, V., Moreira, G.F., Moreira, C.C. and Moino, A. 2010. Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes under laboratory and greenhouses conditions for the control of Spodoptera frugiperda Ciencia Rural 40: 1860-1866.
Recently, Hyrsl et al. (2011) demonstrated that the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster as an immune response can form the blood (hemolymph) clots and protect against infection by an entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) and its symbiotic bacterium (Photorhabdus luminescens). Read following papers for more information on the interaction between fruit fly and entomopathogenic nematodes.
Hyrsl, P., Dobes, P., Wang, Z., Hauling, T., Wilhelmsson, C. and Theopold, U. 2011. Clotting Factors and Eicosanoids Protect against Nematode Infections. Journal of Innate Immunity 3: 65-70.
Recently, a quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique has been developed by Campos-Herrera et al (2011) for detecting and quantifying entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema diaprepesi, Steinernema riobrave, Heterorhabditis indica, Heterorhabditis zealandica, Heterorhabditis floridensis and an undescribed species in the S. glaseri group from soil samples. Read following paper for a detail protocol of quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique
Campos-Herrera, R., Johnson, E. G, El-Borai, F. E., Stuart, R. J., Graham, J. H. and Duncan, L. W.2011. Long-term stability of entomopathogenic nematode spatial patterns in soil as measured by sentinel insects and real-time PCR. Annals of Applied Biology 158: 55-68.
A survey conducted during 2006 and 2008 showed the presence of both heterorhabditid and steinernematid nematodes in the Arasbaran forests and rangelands, Iran. Based on both morphological and molecular characteristics, heterorhabditid isolates were identified as Heterorhabditis bacteriophora whereas the steinernematid isolates were identified as Steinerenma carpocapsae, S. bicornutum, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kraussei. For more information on the survey methodology nematode identification techniques read following paper.
Nikdel, M., Niknam, G., Griffin, C.T. and Kary, N.E. 2010. Diversity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae) from Arasbaran forests and rangelands in north-west Iran. Nematology 12: 767-773.
Biological control of sheep lice, Bovicola ovis with entomopathogenic nematodes Four entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema riobrave, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora have showed a very high efficacy against sheep lice, Bovicola ovis when tested under laboratory conditions at different incubation temperatures (James et al., 2010). However, the efficacy all the four species of entomopathogenic nematodes varied with the nematode species and incubation temperature.
For more information on the interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and sheep lice read following paper.
James, P. J., Hook, S.E. and Pepper, P. M. 2010. In vitro infection of sheep lice (Bovicola ovis Schrank) by Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid nematodes. Veterinary Parasitology 174: 85-91.
Social insects including ants, termites and wasps can sting and cause harm to people. Termites and some species of ants are considered as serious pests of many crops and wooden structures (e. g. houses). Wasp insects including yellowjackets can be dangerous to people and domestic animals because of their ability to sting. Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis spp.) can cause serious injuries to people and animals. Insect-parasitic nematodes have a potential to use as biological control agents to kill these noxious social insects. It has been demonstrated that two insect-parasitic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapase, S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora can cause over 70% mortality of yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica under laboratory conditions (Gambino, 1984; Guzman, 1984). Steinernema carpocapsae can cause over 60% mortality of fire ants under laboratory conditions (Drees et al., 1992). It has been reported that S. feltiae when applied at the rate of 1,500,000 infective juveniles/nest can cause over 97% mortality of termites, Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes speratus ( Wu et al., 1991). According to Wang et al (2002), both H. indica and H. bacteriophora were capable of infecting and killing termites, C. formosanus and R. flavipes in petri dish tests.
Please read following papers for more information on interaction between social insects and insect-parasitic nematodes.
Drees, B.M., Miller, R.W., Vinson, S.B. and Georgis, R. 1992. Susceptibility and behavioral response of of red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: formicidae) to selected entomogenous nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae & Heterorhabditidae). Journal of Economic Entomology. 85: 365-370.
Gambino, P. 1984. Susceptibility of western yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica to three species of three entomogenous nematodes. International Research Communications System Medical Science: Microbiology, Parasitology and Infectious Diseases. 12: 264.
Guzman, R.F. 1984. Preliminary evaluation of the potential of Steinernema feltiae for controlling Vespula germanica. New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 11: 100.
Wang, C., Powell, J.E. and Nguyen, K. 2002. Laboratory Evaluation of four entomopathogenic nematodes for control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology. 31: 381-387.
Wu, H.J., Wang, Z.N., Ou, C.F., Tsai, R.S. and Chow, Y.S. 1991. Susceptibility of two Formosan termites to the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae Filipjev. Bulletin of the institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. 30: 31-39.
The grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis is one of economically important pests of grapes in eastern USA. Larva stages of this insect feed on grape roots and can cause severe economic damage to the commercial grape industry by killing entire vineyards. Beneficial nematodes have potential to use as biological control agent to target both larval and pupal stages of root borers. It has been demonstrated that the beneficial nematodes including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, H. zealandica and Steinernema carpocapsae can cause over 70% mortality of grape root borer larvae under laboratory conditions (Williams et al., 2002). Read following paper for more information on interaction between beneficial nematodes and grape root borer.
Williams, R.N., Fickle, D.S., Grewal, P.S. and Meyer, J.R. 2002. Assessing the potential of entomopathogenic nematodes to control the grape root borer, Vitacea polistifirmis (Lepidiptera: Sesiidae) thorough laboratory bioassays. Biocontrol Science and Technology. 12: 35-42.
Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora CLO51 strain, H. megidis VBM30 strain, H. indica, Steinernema scarabaei, S. feltiae, S. arenarium, S. carpocapsae Belgian strain, S. glaseri Belgian and NC strains was tested against larval pupal stages a white grub, Hoplia philanthus under laboratory and greenhouse conditions. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, H. megidis and both strains of S. glaseri showed highest virulence against third stage larvae and pupae whereas Belgium strain of S. glaseri showed high virulence against second stage larvae of H. philanthus under laboratory conditions whereas H. bacteriophora, Belgium strains of S. glaseri and S. scarabaei showed high virulence to third stage than second stage larvae of white grubs under greenhouse conditions.
Reference:
Ansari, M.A., Adhikari, B.N., Ali, F. and Moens, M. 2008. Susceptibility of Hoplia philanthus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae and pupae to entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae). Biological Control. 47: 315-321.
Efficacies of two biological control agents including entomopathogenic fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) and insect-parasitic nematode (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) against western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera was compared with two insecticides including Tefluthrin (synthetic pyrethroid compound) and clothianidin (neonicotinoid compound). According to Pilz et al (2009), insect-parasitic nematode, H. bacteriophora was as effective as both insecticides in reducing population of the western corn rootworm. Reference:
Pilz, C., Keller, S., Kuhlmann, U. and Toepfer, S. 2009. Comparative efficacy assessment of fungi, nematodes and insecticides to control western corn rootworm larvae in maize. Biocontrol. 54: 671-684.
Efficacy of four new entomopathogenic nematode strains including Heterorhabditis indica strains MP17 and MP111, Heterorhabditis sp. strain MP68 and Steinernema minuta strain MP10 from Thailand was tested against the second instar larva of the Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica in laboratory bioassays. This study demonstrated that the strains of both H. indica and Heterorhabditis spp. were more efficacious against P. japonica that the strain of Steinernema minuta. However, when comparisons were made among the strains of Heterorhabditis nematodes, MP111 strain of H. indica was the most efficacious against the second instar larva of Japanese beetle . Read following paper on the virulence of entomopathogenic nematodes from Thailand on Japanese beetle.
Maneesakorn, P., An, R., Grewal, P.S.and Chandrapatya, A. 2010. Virulence of our new strains of entomopathogenic nematodes from Thailand against second instar larva of the Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Thai Journal of Agricultural Science.43: 61-66.
Recently, a new entomopathogenic nematode species Heterorhabditis sonorensis has been reported from Mexico. This nematode was recovered from nymphal stages of cicada Diceroprocta ornea collected from an asparagus field. Please read following research paper on techniques used for the identification of this new entomopathogenic nematode species.
Stock, S.P., Rivera-Orduno, B. and Flores-Lara, Y. 2009. Heterorhabditis sonorensis n. sp (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae), a natural pathogen of the seasonal cicada Diceroprocta ornea (Walker) (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in the Sonoran desert. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 100: 175-184.
Recently, a new entomopathogenic nematode species Heterorhabditis gerrardi has been reported from Australia. This nematode and its associated bacteria, Photorhabdus asymbiotica Kingscliff strain was identified using both morphological and molecular techniques. Please read following paper on procedures used for identification of this new entomopathogenic nematode species.
Plichta, K.L., Joyce, S.A., Clarke, D., Waterfield, N. and Stock, S.P. 2009. Heterorhabditis gerrardi n. sp (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae): the hidden host of Photorhabdus asymbiotica (Enterobacteriaceae: gamma-Proteobacteria). Journal of Helminthology.83: 309-320.
A new species of Heterorhabditis brevicaudis and its symbiotic bacteria, Photorhabdus luminescens subsp. akhurstii has been reported for the first time from Taiwan. This nematode was isolated from sandy coastal soils in moist bamboo forest. Read following paper for more information on the methods used for identification of nematodes and its associated bacteria.
Hsieh, F.C., Tzeng, C.Y., Tseng, J.T., Tsai, Y.S., Meng, M.H. and Kao, S.S. 2009. Isolation and Characterization of the Native Entomopathogenic Nematode, Heterorhabditis brevicaudis, and its Symbiotic Bacteria from Taiwan. Current Microbiology. 58: 564-570.
The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is considered as an economically important pest of corn in Brazil. Entomopathogenic nematodes have a potential to include as biological control agents in the integrated pest management (IPM) programs to control the armyworm. Recently, Negrisoli et al. (2010a) reported that several insecticides including Chlorpyrifos, Deltamethrin, Llufenuron, Deltramethrin + Triazophos, Diflubenzuron, Gamacyhalothrin, Lambdacyhalothrin, Spinosad, Chlorpyrifos, Cypermethrin, Triflumuron and Permethrin were compatible with the three species of entomopathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema glaseri under laboratory conditions. Furthermore, it has been also reported that the efficacy of an entomopathogenic nematode, H. indica was enhanced against fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda when mixed with an insecticide, Lufenuron (Negrisoli et al., 2010b). Read following research papers on compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with insecticides.
Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S. and Negrisoli, C.R.C.B. 2010a. Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with registered insecticides for Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions. Crop Protection. 29: 545-549
Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B., Bernardi, D. and da Silva, A. 2010b. Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) and insecticide mixtures to control Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in corn. Crop Protection. 29: 677-683.
Recently, McGraw et al (2010) demonstrated that field application of three species of entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema carpocapsae, S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) at rate of 2.5 billion nematodes/hectare reduced over 69% population of first generation late instars of the annual bluegrass weevil, Listronotus maculicollis. For more information on the interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and the annual bluegrass weevil read following literature.
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McGraw, B.A. and Koppenhofer A.M. 2008. Evaluation of two endemic and five commercial entomopathogenic nematode species (Rhabditida : Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) against annual bluegrass weevil (Coleoptera : Curculionidae) larvae and adults. Biological Control. 46: 467-475.
McGraw, B.A. and Koppenhofer A.M. 2009. Population dynamics and interactions between endemic entomopathogenic nematodes and annual bluegrass weevil populations in golf course turfgrass. Applied Soil Ecology. 41: 77-89.
McGraw, B.A., Vittum, P.J., Cowles, R.S. and Koppenhofer A.M. 2010. Field evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes for the biological control of the annual bluegrass weevil, Listronotus maculicollis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in golf course turfgrass. Biocontrol Science and Technology. 20: 149-163.
It has been reported that entompathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis megidis and Steinernema kraussei are effective against the black vine weevil Otiorhynchus sulcatus infesting strawberry fields (Haukeland and Lola-Luz, 2010). It has been suggested that the soil type and soil temperature plays a significant role in efficacy of these nematodes against the black vine weevil. It is also noted that H. megidis performs better at soil temperatures above 10oC and S. kraussei at below 10oC. References:
Haukeland, S. and Lola-Luz, T. 2010. Efficacy of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema kraussei and Heterorhabditis megidis against the black vine weevil Otiorhynchus sulcatus in open field-grown strawberry plants. Agricultural and Forest Entomology.12363-369
It has been demonstrated that that application of an entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora can reduce the population of the western corn rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera in the field and thus reducing the damage caused by this insect pest to corn roots and preventing subsequent lodging of plants (Stefan et al., 2010). References:
Stefan, T., Ibolya, H.Z., Ehlers, R.U., Peters, A. and Kuhlmann, U. 2010. The effect of application techniques on field-scale efficacy: can the use of entomopathogenic nematodes reduce damage by western corn rootworm larvae? Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 12: 389-402.