Plants can call entomopathogenic nematodes to attack their insect enemies

It has been demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes are attracted to herbivore-induced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from plants when fed upon by their insect pests.   Thus these attracted nematodes can attack and kill the insects present in the vicinity of plants. Please read following papers for more information on VOCs released by plants and nematode attraction.

Ali, J.G., Alborn, H.T. and Stelinski, L.L. 2011. Constitutive and induced subterranean plant volatiles attract both entomopathogenic and plant parasitic nematodes. Journal of Ecology 99: 26-35.

Rasmann, S., Erwin, A.C., Halitschke, R. and Agrawal, A.A. 2011. Direct and indirect root defenses of milkweed (Asclepias syriaca): trophic cascades, trade-offs and novel methods for studying subterranean herbivory.  Journal of Ecology 99: 16-25.

Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with chemical pesticides

Recently, Radova (2011) reported that the chemical pesticide fenpyroximate showed no adverse effect on virulence of entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora but it reduced the virulence of Steinernema feltiae against the insect called mealworm Tenebrio molitor under laboratory conditions. For more information, read following papers on related topics

Garcia-Del-Pino, F. and Morton, A. 2010.  Synergistic effect of the herbicides glyphosate and MCPA on survival of entomopathogenic nematodes  Biocontrol Science and Technology.  20: 483-488.

Gutierrez, C., Campos-Herrera, R. and Jimenez, J. 2008.  Comparative study of the effect of selected agrochemical products on Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditida : Steinernematidae).  Biocontrol Science and Technology.  18: 101-108.

Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B. 2010a.  Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with registered insecticides for Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions.  Crop Protection 29: 545-549.

Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B., Bernardi, D. and da Silva, A. 2010b.  Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) and insecticide mixtures to control Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in corn. Crop Protection. 29: 677-683.

Radova, S.  2011.  Effects of selected pesticides on survival and virulence of two nematode species. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies.  20: 181-185.

Biological control of the lesser peachtree borer (Synanthedon pictipes)

The lesser peachtree borer, Synanthedon pictipes is a serious pest of commercially grown peach (Prunus spp.), orchards.  It has been demonstrated that this insect pest can be controlled using entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae, S. riobrave and  Heterorhabditis spp. Please read following article for interaction between the lesser peachtree borer and entomopathogenic nematodes.

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Cottrell, T. E., Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Horton, D. L., and Mizell, R. F., III.  2011. Laboratory virulence and orchard efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against the lesser peach tree borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae).  Journal of Economic entomology 104: 47-53.

Damage caused by Japanese beetles

Click following links to read about Japanese beetles and the damage caused by them to many plant species. This insect can be controlled by using entomopathogenic nematodes. http://www.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef451.asp

http://www.landscape-america.com/problems/insects/japanese_beetle.html

http://ipm.illinois.edu/fieldcrops/insects/japanese_beetles/

http://www.turf.msu.edu/japanese-beetle

http://urbanext.illinois.edu/turf/whitegrub.html

Links to interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and japanese beetles

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9784356

http://esa.confex.com/esa/2007/techprogram/paper_32669.htm

http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/nema508.html

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2001.html

http://esa.confex.com/esa/2008/techprogram/paper_35315.htm

What are Plant-parasitic nematodes?

Nematodes are usually microscopic, thread-like, colorless and non-segmented roundworms without any appendages. There are harmful (e.g., plant- and animal-parasitic) and beneficial (e.g., entomopathogenic) nematodes. Plant-parasitic nematodes generally cause damage to crops and many other types of plants. Although majority of plant-parasitic nematodes are root feeders, they have different types of association with plants. For example, the root-knot (Meloidogyne sp) and cyst (Heterodera sp.) nematodes have endoparasitic association meaning they live and feed within the tissue of roots, tubers, buds, seeds. Nematodes including stuby-root (Trichodorus sp.), dagger (Xiphinema sp), needle (Longidorus sp), ring (Criconemella sp), stunt (Tylenchorhynchus sp), pin (Paratylenchus sp), and spiral (Helicotylenchus sp) have ectoparasitic association meaning they feed externally on roots through their walls. Some of the nematodes like the reniform (Rotylenchulus reniformis) have semi-endoparasitic association meaning these nematodes feed on the roots by penetrating their anterior (head) region into root tissue and leaving their posterior (tail) region remains outside of the root.

Biological control of Scarab larvae, Phyllophaga bicolor with entomopathogenic nematodes

It has been reported that the heterorhabditis nematodes were more virulent than steinernematid nematodes against larvae Phyllophaga bicolor (Melo et al., 2010). Read following paper for more information.

Melo, E.L, Ortega, C.A., Gaigl, A. and Bellotti, A. 2010.  Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes for the management of Phyllophaga bicolor (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae). Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 36: 207-212.

Control of cockroaches using entomopathogenic nematodes

It has been reported that entomopathogenic nematodes can be used as biological control agent to manage species of the American (Periplaneta americana) and the German (Blattella germanica) cockroaches. Read following paper for more information

Maketon, M., Hominchan, A. and Hotaka, D.  2010. Control of American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and German cockroach (Blattella germanica) by entomopathogenic nematodes.  Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 36: 249-253.

Biological control of codling moth, Cydia pomonella with entomopathogenic nematodes

It has been demonstrated that the Entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema feltiae have a potential to use as effective biological control agent against diapausing cocooned codling moth, Cydia pomonella larvae in miniature fruit bins. Read following paper for more information on efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against codling moth

Lacey, L.A., Neven, L.G., Headrick, H.L., Fritts, R. 2005.  Factors affecting entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinerneniatidae) for control of overwintering codling moth (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae) in fruit bins. Journal of Economic Entomology 98: 1863-1869.

Entomopatogenic nematodes are compatible with many insecticides

Recently, Negrisoli et al. (2010) demonstrated that entomopathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema glaseri were found to be compatible with many insecticides including chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, lufenuron, deltramethrin + triazophos, diflubenzuron, gamacyhalothrin, lambdacyhalothrin, spinosad, cypermethrin, triflumuron, and permethrin under laboratory conditions. Read following paper for more information compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes with insecticides.

Negrisoli, A.S., Garcia, M.S., Negrisoli, C.R.C.B. 2010.  Compatibility of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Rhabditida) with registered insecticides for Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions.  Crop Protection 29: 545-549.

Biological control of fall army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) an insect pest of corn

Recently, Andalo, et al. (2010) demonstrated that the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema arenarium and Heterorhabditis sp. can kill over 80% larvae of fall army worm, Spodoptera frugiperda under both laboratory and greenhouse condition. Read following paper for the information on the effect of entomopathogenic nematodes on fall army worm.

Andalo, V., Santos, V., Moreira, G.F., Moreira, C.C. and Moino, A.  2010. Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes under laboratory and greenhouses conditions for the control of Spodoptera frugiperda Ciencia Rural  40: 1860-1866.

Insect blood clotting can prevent infection by entomopathogenic nematodes

Recently, Hyrsl et al. (2011) demonstrated that the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster as an immune response can form the blood (hemolymph) clots and protect against infection by an entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) and its symbiotic bacterium (Photorhabdus luminescens). Read following papers for more information on the interaction between fruit fly and entomopathogenic nematodes.

Hyrsl, P., Dobes, P., Wang, Z., Hauling, T., Wilhelmsson, C. and Theopold, U. 2011. Clotting Factors and Eicosanoids Protect against Nematode Infections.  Journal of Innate Immunity 3: 65-70.

Quantitative real-time PCR techniques for detecting and quantifying entomopathogenic nematodes from the soil samples

Recently, a quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique has been developed by Campos-Herrera et al (2011) for detecting and quantifying entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema diaprepesi, Steinernema riobrave, Heterorhabditis indica, Heterorhabditis zealandica, Heterorhabditis floridensis and an undescribed species in the S. glaseri group from soil samples. Read following paper for a detail protocol of quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique

Campos-Herrera, R., Johnson, E. G, El-Borai, F. E., Stuart, R. J., Graham, J. H. and Duncan, L. W.2011. Long-term stability of entomopathogenic nematode spatial patterns in soil as measured by sentinel insects and real-time PCR. Annals of Applied Biology    158: 55-68.

A report of entomopathogenic nematodes from Iran

A survey conducted during 2006 and 2008 showed the presence of both heterorhabditid and steinernematid nematodes in the Arasbaran forests and rangelands, Iran.  Based on both morphological and molecular characteristics, heterorhabditid isolates were identified as Heterorhabditis bacteriophora whereas the steinernematid isolates were identified as Steinerenma carpocapsae, S. bicornutum, S. feltiae, S. glaseri, S. kraussei. For more information on the survey methodology nematode identification techniques read following paper.

Nikdel, M., Niknam, G., Griffin, C.T. and Kary, N.E. 2010. Diversity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae) from Arasbaran forests and rangelands in north-west Iran.  Nematology 12: 767-773.

Entomopathogenic nematodes as biological control agents for sheep lice, Bovicola ovis

Biological control of sheep lice, Bovicola ovis with entomopathogenic nematodes Four entomopathogenic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema riobrave, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora have showed a very high efficacy against sheep lice, Bovicola ovis when tested under laboratory conditions at different incubation temperatures (James et al., 2010).  However,  the efficacy all the four species of entomopathogenic nematodes varied with the nematode species and incubation temperature.

For more information on the interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and sheep lice read following paper.

1. James, P. J., Hook, S.E. and Pepper, P. M. 2010. In vitro infection of sheep lice (Bovicola ovis Schrank) by Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid nematodes. Veterinary Parasitology 174: 85-91.

Control of noxious social insects with entomopathogenic nematodes

Social insects including ants, termites and wasps can sting and cause harm to people. Termites and some species of ants are considered as serious pests of many crops and wooden structures (e. g. houses). Wasp insects including yellowjackets can be dangerous to people and domestic animals because of their ability to sting. Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis spp.) can cause serious injuries to people and animals. Insect-parasitic nematodes have a potential to use as biological control agents to kill these noxious social insects. It has been demonstrated that two insect-parasitic nematodes including Steinernema carpocapase, S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora can cause over 70% mortality of yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica under laboratory conditions (Gambino, 1984; Guzman, 1984). Steinernema carpocapsae can cause over 60% mortality of fire ants under laboratory conditions (Drees et al., 1992). It has been reported that S. feltiae when applied at the rate of 1,500,000 infective juveniles/nest can cause over 97% mortality of termites, Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes speratus ( Wu et al., 1991). According to Wang et al (2002), both H. indica and H. bacteriophora were capable of infecting and killing termites, C. formosanus and R. flavipes in petri dish tests.

Please read following papers for more information on interaction between social insects and insect-parasitic nematodes.

Drees, B.M., Miller, R.W., Vinson, S.B. and Georgis, R. 1992.  Susceptibility and behavioral response of of red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: formicidae) to selected entomogenous nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae & Heterorhabditidae). Journal of Economic Entomology. 85: 365-370.

Gambino, P. 1984. Susceptibility of western yellowjacket, Vespula pensylvanica to three species of three entomogenous nematodes. International Research Communications System Medical Science: Microbiology, Parasitology and Infectious Diseases. 12: 264.

Guzman, R.F. 1984.  Preliminary evaluation of the potential of Steinernema feltiae for controlling Vespula germanica. New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 11: 100.

Wang, C., Powell, J.E. and Nguyen, K. 2002.  Laboratory Evaluation of four entomopathogenic nematodes for control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology. 31: 381-387.

Wu, H.J., Wang, Z.N., Ou, C.F., Tsai, R.S. and Chow, Y.S. 1991.  Susceptibility of two Formosan termites to the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae Filipjev.  Bulletin of the institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. 30: 31-39.

Control grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis with beneficial nematodes

The grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis is one of economically important pests of grapes in eastern USA.  Larva stages of this insect feed on grape roots and can cause severe economic damage to the commercial grape industry by killing entire vineyards.  Beneficial nematodes have potential to use as biological control agent to target both larval and pupal stages of root borers.  It has been demonstrated that the beneficial nematodes including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, H. zealandica and Steinernema carpocapsae can cause over 70% mortality of grape root borer larvae under laboratory conditions (Williams et al., 2002). Read following paper for more information on interaction between beneficial nematodes and grape root borer.

Williams, R.N., Fickle, D.S., Grewal, P.S. and Meyer, J.R. 2002.  Assessing the potential of entomopathogenic nematodes to control the grape root borer, Vitacea polistifirmis (Lepidiptera: Sesiidae) thorough laboratory bioassays. Biocontrol Science and Technology. 12: 35-42. 

Control of white grub Hoplia philanthus with entomopathogenic nematodes

Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora CLO51 strain, H. megidis VBM30 strain, H. indica, Steinernema scarabaei, S. feltiae, S. arenarium, S. carpocapsae Belgian strain, S. glaseri Belgian and NC strains was tested against larval pupal stages a white grub, Hoplia philanthus under laboratory and greenhouse conditions. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, H. megidis and both strains of S. glaseri showed highest virulence against third stage larvae and pupae whereas Belgium strain of S. glaseri showed high virulence against second stage larvae of H. philanthus under laboratory conditions whereas H. bacteriophora, Belgium strains of S. glaseri and S. scarabaei showed high virulence to third stage than second stage larvae of white grubs under greenhouse conditions.

Reference:

Ansari, M.A., Adhikari, B.N., Ali, F. and Moens, M. 2008. Susceptibility of Hoplia philanthus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae and pupae to entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae). Biological Control. 47: 315-321.

Use entomopathogenic nematodes to control western corn rootworm

Efficacies of two biological control agents including entomopathogenic fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) and insect-parasitic nematode (Heterorhabditis bacteriophora) against western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera was compared with two insecticides including Tefluthrin (synthetic pyrethroid compound) and clothianidin (neonicotinoid compound).  According to Pilz et al (2009), insect-parasitic nematode,  H. bacteriophora was as effective as both insecticides in reducing population of the western corn rootworm. Reference:

Pilz, C., Keller, S., Kuhlmann, U. and Toepfer, S. 2009.  Comparative efficacy assessment of fungi, nematodes and insecticides to control western corn rootworm larvae in maize.  Biocontrol. 54: 671-684.

Efficacy of Heterorhabditis indica and Steinernema minuta against the Japanese beetle

Efficacy of four new entomopathogenic nematode strains including Heterorhabditis indica strains MP17 and MP111, Heterorhabditis sp. strain MP68 and Steinernema  minuta strain MP10 from Thailand was tested against the second  instar larva of the Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica in laboratory bioassays. This study demonstrated that the strains of both H. indica and Heterorhabditis spp. were more efficacious against P. japonica that the strain of Steinernema  minuta. However, when comparisons were made among the strains of Heterorhabditis nematodes, MP111 strain of H. indica was the most efficacious against the second instar larva of Japanese beetle . Read following paper on the virulence of entomopathogenic nematodes from Thailand on Japanese beetle.

Maneesakorn, P., An, R., Grewal, P.S.and Chandrapatya, A. 2010. Virulence of our new strains of entomopathogenic nematodes from Thailand against second instar larva of the Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Thai Journal of Agricultural Science.43: 61-66.

A new entomopathogenic nematode species, Heterorhabditis sonorensis from Mexico

Recently, a new entomopathogenic nematode species Heterorhabditis sonorensis has been reported from Mexico.  This nematode was recovered from nymphal stages of cicada Diceroprocta ornea collected from an asparagus field. Please read following research paper on techniques used for the identification of this new entomopathogenic nematode species.

Stock, S.P., Rivera-Orduno, B. and Flores-Lara, Y. 2009. Heterorhabditis sonorensis n. sp (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae), a natural pathogen of the seasonal cicada Diceroprocta ornea (Walker) (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in the Sonoran desert. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 100: 175-184.